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Rise of sociology as an intellectual tradition. Classical tradition in sociology of the XIX century |
Ночник-проектор "Звездное небо и планеты", фиолетовый. 
Гуашь "Классика", 12 цветов. MI IS ERY OF EDUCA IO OF HE REPUBLIC OF BELARUS Belarus S a e Eco omic U iversi y REFERA : «Rise of sociology as a i ellec ual radi io . Classical radi io i sociology of he XIX ce ury» Mi sk 2008 1. Rise of sociology as a i ellec ual radi io Si ce a cie imes ma has bee i eres ed i issues of his ow livi g amo g o her people. Why do people ry o joi livi g wi h o her people, o wi hou ? Wha makes hem fix borders, form separa e s a es a d s ruggle wi h each o her? Why do some people possess all be efi s, o hers are deprived of hem? Searchi g for a swers o hese ques io s forced a cie hi kers o focus heir a e io o ma a d he socie y where he lives i . Emerge ce of sociology is obliged o he co cep “socie y”, i s heore ical developme a d use i prac ice. A emp s o comprehe d op imal ways of gover i g, social order, people’s effec ive ac ivi ies were firs made by a cie Chi ese a d I dia philosophers. A ique philosophers made heir co ribu io by sugges i g ew ideas which are ow co sidered fu dame als of sociology. For i s a ce, Pla o a d Aris o le developed a doc ri e of huma a d he socie y; heir works i i ia ed s udies of cer ai social i s i u io s such as he s a e, family a d law. Followi g he pri ciple of social divisio of labour, Pla o (427-347 BC) crea ed a firs i he world heory of s ra ifica io accordi g o which he socie y is divided i o hree classes: higher class co sis i g of wise me who gover he s a e; middle class or warriors who defe d he socie y from disorder, a d lower class co sis i g of craf sme a d peasa s. A yway, i his heory here was o place for slaves whose des i y was hard work co sidered as u wor hy by free ci ize s. Aris o le co sidered middle class a foo -hold of order. o his mi d, he s a e is be er gover ed if egois ic i eres s of he rich are limi ed, he poor are o excluded from gover me , a d middle class is grea er a d s ro ger ha he rich a d he poor. radi io ally he origi s of sociology are see i Europea philosophy of he XVIII ce ury, a period ha is referred o as he Age of E ligh e me or he Age of Reaso . his moveme advoca ed ra io ali y as a mea s o es ablish a au hori a ive sys em of e hics, aes he ics, a d k owledge. he i ellec ual leaders of his moveme regarded hemselves as courageous a d eli e, a d saw heir purpose as leadi g he world oward progress a d ou of a lo g period of doub ful radi io , full of irra io ali y, supers i io a d yra y. he E ligh e me also provided a framework for he America a d Fre ch Revolu io s, as well as leadi g o he rise of capi alism a d bir h of socialism. he XVIII ce ury also saw a co i ued rise of empirical philosophical ideas, a d heir applica io o poli ical eco omy, gover me a d scie ces such as physics, chemis ry a d biology. However, i ves iga io s of his age were far from bei g sys emic a d i egral. Lo s of impor a issues were o paid a e io o, ha ’s why achieveme s i lear i g social phe ome a were less co siderable as compared o o her scie ces. Of u mos i eres of he period became s udy of social commu i ies a d processes of heir developme a d fu c io i g.
he s udy was caused by wo fac ors. he firs fac or was i dus rial developme of Europea cou ries; he seco d o e was ha all spheres of huma ac ivi ies became more complica ed ha raised problems of people’s i erac io s a d heir gover me , crea io of social order i he socie y e c. Whe problems were realized a d sou ded, prerequisi es for developi g a ew scie ce appeared, scie ce which could s udy groups of people a d heir behaviour i groups, huma i erac io s a d heir resul s. As origi s of sociology are see i spiri ual a d poli ical ideas of he E ligh e me a d reac io o he Fre ch Revolu io , Fre ch hi kers, E glish a d Germa philosophers who worked a d crea ed i ha period are co sidered direc predecessors of sociological k owledge. Of Germa philosophers Imma uel Ka (1724-1804) is more of e recollec ed due o his co ribu io o developme of social problems, i par icular problems of perso ali y. Ka believed ha ma is a ambivale bei g by his a ure: he is bo h good a d bad, ho es a d disho es , fair a d u fair, free a d depe de . o his mi d, ma ’s a ural ega ive charac er is hidde a d displayed i hose livi g co di io s which make ma reveal his vices. Bu ma is s rivi g for self-perfec io a d his ally is reaso ha helps ma o overcome his ega ive quali ies. Ka co sidered ha harmo y be wee huma a d he socie y is achieved if ma overcomes his vices by obeyi g laws a d moral orms. Georg Hegel (1770-1831) made his dialec ics more ge eralized. His aim was o defi e basic de ermi a s of his oric developme so ha he could exami e peculiari ies of i s realiza io i differe his oric periods a d show correla io of his oric ecessi y a d people’s co scious ac ivi ies. He drew a pic ure of social reali y all par s of which (objec ive a d subjec ive, dy amic a d s a ic, ma erial a d ideal) are i errela ed by a dialec ic me hod. Of Fre ch philosophers o e ca me io Charles Mo esquieu, Jea -Jacques Rousseau, Sai -Simo a d o hers. Ch. Mo esquieu (1689-1755) u derli ed impor a ce of compara ive research of social phe ome a. J.-J. Rousseau (1712-1778) dis i guished classes i he socie y a d believed ha ma ’s a ure is good bu ma is “spoil ” by he socie y. I o he basis of harmo ic arra geme of he socie y he pu social agreeme , i.e. co se sus of people as reflec io of heir commo will which is expressed i laws. Sai -Simo (1760-1825) was possibly he firs o sugges pla i g as a way o ru eco omy. o his mi d, social problems could be solved by moral a d religious reformi g, based o employers’ good will o be er he worki g co di io s. I 1822 he published his work, Pla de raveaux scie ifiques &eacu e;cessaires pour r&eacu e;orga iser la soci&eacu e; &eacu e; (План научных работ, необходимых для реорганизации общества), wri e wi h Augus e Com e. I he book he hi kers sugges ed a idea of developi g a ew scie ce of he socie y which, by a alogy wi h physics, should be based o observa io , experime a d o her me hods of a ural scie ces. I i ially, he scie ce was give he ame of social physics. By ha ime a social heory prese ed a mixed spec rum of various views i which bo h basic a d addi io al mo ives were combi ed; basic mo ives bore ra io al a d irra io al charac er while eco omic, poli ical, legal a d moral i eres s co s i u ed he e i y of addi io al o es.
hose views reflec ed hi kers a d researchers’ ou look, heir ideological posi io s a d ways of s udyi g social problems. I his co ex legacy by A. Com e (1798-1857), he i i ia or of sociology, was o a excep io . here are wo reaso s why A. Com e is ack owledged as he fou di g fa her of sociology. Firs , he developed a sys ema ic a d hierarchical classifica io of all scie ces a d by i cludi g sociology i o hem, he gave grou ds for es ablishi g i s au o omy as a discipli e; seco d, i 1839 he cha ged he ame of social physics i o sociology. His fu dame al works are Cours de philosophie posi ive i 6 volumes (1830-1842), Sys ème de poli ique posi ive (1850-1854). A. Com e’s legacy i cludes he law of hree phases, his co ribu io o fur her developme of he heory of a i dus rial socie y s ar ed by Sai -Simo . I is by his s a eme of his law ha he is bes k ow i he E glish-speaki g world. he law says ha he socie y has go e hrough hree phases: heological, or mili ary au hori y; me aphysical, or feudal au hori y; scie ific, or posi ive phase see as a i dus rial civiliza io . I he heological phase ma ’s place i he socie y a d he socie y’s res ric io s upo ma were referred o God. he me aphysic phase i volved jus ifica io of u iversal righ s as some hi g o a higher pla e ha he au hori y of a y huma ruler could cou erma d. he scie ific phase is ha o e i which people could fi d solu io s o social problems a d bri g hem i o force despi e of he proclama io s of huma righ s or prophecy of he will of God. For i s ime, he idea of a scie ific phase was co sidered up- o-da e. A. Com e also formula ed he law of hree phases: huma developme (social progress) progresses from a heological s age, i which a ure was my hically co ceived a d ma sough he expla a io of a ural phe ome a from super a ural bei gs, hrough a me aphysical s age i which a ure was co ceived of as a resul of obscure forces a d ma sough he expla a io of a ural phe ome a from hem o he fi al posi ive s age i which all abs rac a d obscure forces are discarded, a d a ural phe ome a are explai ed by heir co s a rela io ship. his progress is forced hrough he developme of huma mi d a d i creasi g applica io of hough , reaso i g a d logic o he u ders a di g of world. Due o i , A. Com e hough ha i dus rializa io is he resul of a scie ific way of hi ki g spread ou i all spheres of huma life bu o of ech ical a d eco omic progress. However, he rejec ed he role of ge eral heory i sociology: i s ead of heore ic ge eraliza io of empiric da a o make up a whole of hem, he prese ed he socie y as a simple e i y of i erco ec ed fac s. He did ’ clearly de ermi e he subjec of a ew scie ce; ei her he did ’ fi d i s scie ific me hod o lear laws of social developme . A grea co ribu io o es ablishi g he me hodological basis of sociology, mos ly i s empiric basis, was made by Lamber Ke le (1796-1874), a Fre ch a d Belgia ma hema icia a d s a is icia . He brough i ew heore ic a d me hodological ideas a d a ew sample of research aimed a solvi g cer ai applied problems. His achieveme s i sociology are as follows: discovery of s a is ical laws; u ders a di g a social law as a s able e de cy of cha gi g mea s; me hodical recomme da io s how o formula e ques io s i forms a d ques io aires.
Like the Contemporary Composers of the Western Concert Tradition, they experimented with the elements of music - attempting to redefine and reinvent them for the new and modern world they lived in. No longer functioning as a Popular Music, but rather a true Art Music, they were free of any market considerations or audience demands. This enabled experimentation and innovation dependent only on artistic ‘vision’ - and as such, parallel much of what the New ‘Classical’ music did in manipulating the musical elements. The 20th Century Concert Tradition is a logical introduction to this next and multi dimensioned Jazz period. In investigating these changes, it is best to keep in mind the Yin and Yang of any art music - that swing between the Formal and the Emotional. This constant tension - both of degree,dominance, or rejection - determines the parameters of the musical search for a contemporary musical language. • Melody: neither the formal beauty of the Classical nor the lyric beauty of the Romantic were emulated
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