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The Definite Article with Class Nouns in English and in French |
Гуашь "Классика", 12 цветов. 
Фонарь желаний бумажный, оранжевый. 
Мыло металлическое "Ликвидатор". 1. Ge eral Overview of he Ca egory of Ar icle i E glish a d Fre ch 1.1 Ar icle. Ge eral o io A ar icle is a word ha combi es wi h a ou o i dica e he ype of refere ce bei g made by he ou a d o specify he volume or umerical scope of ha refere ce. Ar icle ca be also hough of as a special ki d of adjec ive, because i combi es wi h a ou a d co ribu es o he mea i g of he ou -phrase. Ma y li guis s place he ar icle i he ca egory of de ermi ers. M. Ia. Blokh i his book “ heore ical Grammar of he E glish La guage” says “ he ar icle is a de ermi i g u i of specific a ure accompa yi g he ou i commu ica ive colloca io .” he li guis s L. A. Barmi a a d I. P. Verkhovskaya have he same idea abou he ar icle as a de ermi er. hey a ribu e i o a sy ac ic class of words called de ermi ers which modify a ou . he dic io ary of hesaurus gives he defi i io of he word “ar icle” as a de ermi er ha may i dica e he specifici y of refere ce of a ou phrase. Webs er’s ew World College Dic io ary refers o he ar icle as used as adjec ives. Also i his co ex we would like o add he words of he li guis B. Ilyish who devo ed a whole chap er of his book “S roi sovreme ogo a gliyskogo eazika” o he s udy of he ar icle. He remarks ha he ar icle is usually a separa e u i which may be divided from i s ou by o her words, chiefly adjec ives. So, we may co clude ha he firs fea ure of he ar icle ca be ha he ar icle is a de ermi er of he ou ha refers o, ha is why i ca have some fu c io s of a adjec ive a d i is used as a separa e u i . A o her fea ure of he ar icle is ha ar icles, defi i e or i defi i e, are radi io ally co sidered o form a separa e par of speech. V. L. Kausha skaya i her book “ he Grammar of he E glish La guage” specifies he ar icle as a s ruc ural par of speech. I E. M. Gordo ’s book “A Grammar of Prese -Day E glish” we also mee he o io of a s ruc ural word as he li guis gives he followi g defi i io of he ar icle: “ he ar icle is a s ruc ural word specifyi g he ou ”. Accordi g o hese wo defi i io s we ca defi e he seco d fea ure of he ar icle – i is a s ruc ural word. Judgi g upo he defi i io s give by he differe li guis s a d he dic io aries lis ed above we ca draw a co clusio a d deduce a ge eral defi i io for he ar icle ha would i clude all i s fea ures: A ar icle is a s ruc ural par of speech, which is combi ed wi h a ou o de ermi e i . 1.2 Ar icles i E glish here are wo ar icles i Moder E glish which are called he i defi i e a d he defi i e ar icle. he abse ce of he ar icle, which may be called he zero ar icle, also specifies he ou a d has sig ifica ce. he i defi i e ar icle has he forms a a d a . he form a is used before words begi i g wi h a co so a sou d (a book, a able, a door). he form a is used before words begi i g wi h a vowel sou d (a apple, a hour, a aim). he ar icle is pro ou ced ; whe s ressed i is pro ou ced . 1.2.1 he Defi i e Ar icle i E glish he defi i e ar icle has o e graphic form he, which is pro ou ced i wo ways: before a vowel sou d before a co so a sou d .
his ar icle is used before ou s i he plural, as well as before ou s i he si gular umber. 1.2.2 he His ory of he Defi i e Ar icle i E glish Exami i g he defi i e ar icle by M.A. Gashi a’s book “E glish Grammar Higher School” we fi d some words abou i s his ory. he li guis says ha he defi i e ar icle he is a weake ed form of he Old E glish demo s ra ive pro ou se ( omi a ive se; da ive ΄южm; accusa ive ΄юo e, e c.) which i Old E glish, besides he fu c io of a demo s ra ive, had also he fu c io of he defi i e ar icle. he form “se” was i he masculi e ge der, “seo”- femi i e, a d “юж ”- eu er. source gives he i forma io ha i Middle E glish all hese ki ds of he demo s ra ive pro ou had merged i o юe, he a ces or of he Moder E glish word he. I says ha i Middle E glish he (юe) was freque ly abbrevia ed as a ю wi h a small e above i , similar o he abbrevia io for ha , which was a ю wi h a small above i . Duri g he la er Middle E glish a d Early Moder E glish periods, he le er hor (ю) i i s commo scrip , or cursive form came o resemble a у shape. As such he use of a у wi h a e above i as a abbrevia io became commo . his ca s ill be see i repri s of he 1611 edi io of he Ki g James “Versio of he Bible” i places such as Roma s 15:29 or i he Mayflower Compac . he ar icle was ever pro ou ced wi h a у sou d, eve so wri e . O e of he li guis s who were i eres ed i he his ory of he E glish la guage - Barbara M. H. S ra g, i her book “A His ory of E glish” s a es ha he defi i e ar icle was by 1170 o ly margi ally rela ed o he pro ou sys em. I had wo dis i c ypes hroughou he period. I mos par s of he cou ry i was i decli able юe, la er he, or a he very mos i varied be wee si gular юe a d plural юa. However, i he S a d SW Mid i was decli able, wi h hree ge ders i he si gular a d up o four cases. Where i had decli able forms hey were he same as hose for he ‘fur her’- demo s ra ive, ha , si ce, i fac , hey had origi a ed i a special use of ha form. he forms se ou below were i some par s o ly demo s ra ive, i o hers hey had double fu c io ; hey are prese ed for refere ce-purposes, bu hey e d o sugges far more differe ia io ha mos speakers k ew. I he masc sg here were four forms: se, subj; юe e, юa e, acc; юa , юe e, K юa(Ke ish), la er юo, da (i.e., some speakers reduced he case-sys em o hree eve here). he fem sg usually had hree forms: seo, si (SW a d SE) subj; юa, la er юo, e cli ic o, oblique; юer, южre, ge . he eu er (like he 3rd perso pro ou ) had he same form for subj a d direc obj юe or юa (accordi g o dialec , bu a e ded o i vade e-areas, as a weak form, or by i er al borrowi g, or bo h); he da was usually юa , he ge юes or юas . I he plural all he ge ders had subj-obj юa, la er юo, da or oblique юa , ge юere. he li guis emphasizes ha af er he very begi i g of Middle E glish period, a d ou side K , case a d ge der dis i c io s , i ar icle or demo s ra ive, occur o ly pa chily, a d he i circums a ces showi g ha heir his orical fu c io s have bee forgo e .
O herwise, excep for some persis e ce of plural ho, he defi i e ar icle has become fully i decli able by he e d of he period. As he defi i e ar icle comes from he demo s ra ive pro ou of Old E glish i had preserved i s demo s ra ive mea i g ha is s ill fel i such expressio s as o hi g of he ( ha ) ki d; a he ( ha ) ime; u der he ( hose) circums a ces; for he ( ha ) purpose; he lady (= his lady) is wai i g o see you. hus we ca draw he co clusio ha he defi i e ar icle akes i s origi from he Old E glish demo s ra ive pro ou se which was decli able i co formi y wi h he ge der, umber a d case of he ou i modified. La er i he Middle E glish i cha ged i o юe wi h ou s i si gular a d юa wi h ou s i plural ha became he i he Prese -day E glish. he defi i e ar icle re ai ed i s demo s ra ive mea i g hroughou all he periods of he E glish la guage developme a d owadays i s firs a d mos impor a mea i g is o e of a demo s ra ive. 1.3 he Ar icle i Fre ch Grammar he e ymology of he word “ar icle” comes from La i ar iculus a d i mea s “small member”. Accordi g o he Fre ch li guis Maurice Grevisse ar icle is a word placed before he ou i order o mark ha his ou is ake i i s comple e or i comple e de ermi ed mea i g; i also serves o i dica e he ge der a d he umber of he ou i precedes. .B. Grevisse also says i his book “Le bo usage” ha he ar icle ca be arra ged amo g he adjec ives as i serves o i roduce he ou . hus, compari g wi h E glish we see ha i he Fre ch grammar he ar icle is also placed before he ou . I also has he fu c io of a de ermi er. Bu , as dis i c from he E glish ar icle he ar icle i Fre ch besides i s de ermi a io of he ou sema ically has he fu c io of de ermi i g i from he gramma ical poi of view. I serves o i dica e he ou ’s ge der a d umber. He ce i appears he firs differe ce be wee he ar icles i E glish a d i Fre ch. here are wo ypes of ar icles i Fre ch: defi i e(dйfi i) a d i defi i e(i dйfi i). o e: i is dis i guished of e he hird ype of he ar icle i Fre ch – he par i if ar icle, bu his o e ca be releva by i s forms o he defi i e ar icle a d by i s mea i g i ca be belo ged o he group of he i defi i e ar icle. So, we fi d ou he seco d differe ce be wee he ar icles of he wo la guages. he E glish a d he Fre ch La guages have hree ypes of ar icles a d we saw ha he firs wo ypes coi cide i heir ames: defi i e a d i defi i e. Speaki g abou he hird ype of ar icles i bo h la guages i should be o ed ha i E glish i is called zero ar icle a d i wri e speech i is re dered by he abse ce of he ar icle bu i Fre ch i is called he par i if ar icle which has four forms bu we will speak abou hem i grea er le g h i 1.3.3 1.3.1 he Defi i e Ar icle i Fre ch Maki g he parallel be wee he E glish a d he Fre ch grammar we ca observe ha i he Fre ch la guage ar icles agree wi h ou s hey de ermi e i ge der a d umber. he Fre ch defi i e ar icles (l’ar icle dйfi i) are: le – wi h ou s i masculi e, si gular, le garзo ; la – wi h ou s i femi i e, si gular, la fille; l’ – wi h ou s i masculi e a d femi i e i he si gular form begi i g wi h a vowel or mu e h, l’arbre, l’иre, l’habi ude, l’homme; les – wi h ou s i masculi e a d femi i e i he plural form, les e fa s.
And a few black-and-white ink drawings, simpler than the rest and easier to understand. Easier for a kid like me, anyway. I couldn't make much sense out of the accompanying text, it was a mixture of English and French and some other foreign languages – sometimes just the name of the artist and a gallery or museum. At first I couldn't even tell if it was supposed to be an art collection or a book about sexy women without men. My reading ability was pretty good then, and I even knew some of the French words, drummed into my head at an early age by another of the long line of maidservants, one who must have fancied herself a high-class governess. And the French sure helped, I soon discovered, adding just enough to explain some of the scientific English. (Phony scientific, I found out later, but still loaded with goodies for a beginner like myself!) So after a while I got the hang of the thing and could look at it for pure enjoyment as much as for information. And that was the extent of my progress by the time I realized the vacuum hum had quit
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