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Искусство, Культура, Литература Литература, Лингвистика
Значение слова (Meaning of words) |
Забавная пачка "5000 дублей". 
Брелок LED "Лампочка" классическая. 
Пакеты с замком "Extra зиплок" (гриппер), комплект 100 штук (150x200 мм). министерство образования российской федерации Столичный институт переводчиков факультет английского языка РЕФЕРАТ he mea i g of e glish words Выполнила: Научный руководитель: Москва 2000co e Wha Is "Mea i g"? 3Polysemy. Sema ic S ruc ure of he Word 3 ypes of Sema ic Compo e s 6Mea i g a d Co ex 7Wha Is "Mea i g"? he li guis ic scie ce a prese is o able o pu forward a defi i io of mea i g which is co clusive. However, here are cer ai fac s of which we ca be reaso ably sure, a d o e of hem is ha he very fu c io of he word as a u i of commu ica io is made possible by i s possessi g a mea i g. herefore, amo g he word's various charac eris ics, mea i g is cer ai ly he mos impor a .Ge erally speaki g, mea i g ca be more or less described as a compo e of he word hrough which a co cep (me al phe ome a) is commu ica ed. Mea i g e dows he word wi h he abili y of de o i g real objec s, quali ies, ac io s a d abs rac o io s. he rela io ships be wee “refere ” (objec , e c. de o ed by he word), “co cep ” a d “word” are radi io ally represe ed by he followi g ria gle: hough or Refere ce (Co cep = me al phe ome a) Symbol Refere (word) (objec de o ed by he word)By he "symbol" here is mea he word; “ hough ” or “refere ce” is co cep . he do ed li e sugges s ha here is o immedia e rela io be wee “word” a d “refere ”: i is es ablished o ly hrough he co cep .O he o her ha d, here is a hypo hesis ha co cep s ca o ly fi d heir realiza io hrough words. I seems ha hough is dorma ill he word wake s i up. I is o ly whe we hear a spoke word or read a pri ed word ha he correspo di g co cep spri gs i o mi d. he mecha ism by which co cep s (i. e. me al phe ome a) are co ver ed i o words (i. e. li guis ic phe ome a) a d he reverse process by which a heard or a pri ed word is co ver ed i o a ki d of me al pic ure are o ye u ders ood or described. he bra ch of li guis ics which specialises i he s udy of mea i g is called sema ics. As wi h ma y erms, he erm "sema ics" is ambiguous for i ca s a d, as well, for he expressive aspec of la guage i ge eral a d for he mea i g of o e par icular word i all i s varied aspec s a d ua ces (i. e. he sema ics of a word = he mea i g(s) of a word).Polysemy. Sema ic S ruc ure of he Word I is ge erally k ow ha mos words co vey several co cep s a d hus possess he correspo di g umber of mea i gs. A word havi g several mea i gs is called polysema ic, a d he abili y of words o have more ha o e mea i g is described by he erm polysemy.Polysemy is cer ai ly o a a omaly. Mos E glish words are polysema ic. I should be o ed ha he weal h of expressive resources of a la guage largely depe ds o he degree o which polysemy has developed i he la guage. Some imes people who are o very well i formed i li guis ic ma ers claim ha a la guage is lacki g i words if he eed arises for he same word o be applied o several differe phe ome a. I ac ual fac , i is exac ly he opposi e: if each word is fou d o be capable of co veyi g a leas wo co cep s i s ead of o e, he expressive po e ial of he whole vocabulary i creases wofold. He ce, a well-developed polysemy is a grea adva age i a la guage.O
he o her ha d, i should be poi ed ou ha he umber of sou d combi a io s ha huma speech orga s ca produce is limi ed. herefore a a cer ai s age of la guage developme he produc io of ew words by morphological mea s is limi ed as well, a d polysemy becomes i creasi gly impor a for e richi g he vocabulary. From his, i should be clear ha he process of e richi g he vocabulary does o co sis merely i addi g ew words o i , bu , also, i he co s a developme of polysemy. he sys em of mea i gs of a y polysema ic word develops gradually, mos ly over he ce uries, as more a d more ew mea i gs are added o old o es, or ous some of hem. So he complica ed processes of polysemy developme i volve bo h he appeara ce of ew mea i gs a d he loss of old o es. Ye , he ge eral e de cy wi h E glish vocabulary a he moder s age of i s his ory is o i crease he o al umber of i s mea i gs a d i his way o provide for a qua i a ive a d quali a ive grow h of he la guage's expressive resources.Whe a alysi g he sema ic s ruc ure of a polysema ic word, i is ecessary o dis i guish be wee wo levels of a alysis. O he firs level, he sema ic s ruc ure of a word is rea ed as a sys em of mea i gs. For example, he sema ic s ruc ure of he ou “fire” could be roughly prese ed by his scheme (o ly he mos freque mea i gs are give ): I he above scheme sugges s ha mea i g (I) holds a ki d of domi a ce over he o her mea i gs co veyi g he co cep i he mos ge eral way whereas mea i gs (II)—(V) are associa ed wi h special circums a ces, aspec s a d i s a ces of he same phe ome o .Mea i g (I) (ge erally referred o as he mai mea i g) prese s he ce re of he sema ic s ruc ure of he word holdi g i oge her. I is mai ly hrough mea i g (I) ha mea i gs (II)—(V) ( hey are called seco dary mea i gs) ca be associa ed wi h o e a o her, some of hem exclusively hrough mea i g (I) - he mai mea i g, as, for i s a ce, mea i gs (IV) a d (V).I would hardly be possible o es ablish a y logical associa io s be wee some of he mea i gs of he ou “bar” excep hrough he mai mea i g: Bar, Mea i g's (II) a d (III) have o logical li ks wi h o e a o her whereas each separa ely is easily associa ed wi h mea i g (I): mea i g (II) hrough he radi io al barrier dividi g a cour -room i o wo par s; mea i g (III) hrough he cou er servi g as a ki d of barrier be wee he cus omers of a pub a d he barma .Ye , i is o i every polysema ic word ha such a ce re ca be fou d. Some sema ic s ruc ures are arra ged o a differe pri ciple. I he followi g lis of mea i gs of he adjec ive “dull” o e ca hardly hope o fi d a ge eralized mea i g coveri g a d holdi g oge her he res of he sema ic s ruc ure. Dull, adj.1. A dull book, a dull film - u i eres i g, mo o o ous, bori g. 2. A dull s ude - slow i u ders a di g, s upid. 3. Dull wea her, a dull day, a dull colour - o clear or brigh . 4. A dull sou d - o loud or dis i c . 5. A dull k ife - o sharp. 6. rade is dull - o ac ive. 7. Dull eyes (arch.) - seei g badly. 8. Dull ears (arch.) - heari g badly. here is some hi g ha all hese seemi gly miscella eous mea i gs have i commo , a d ha is he implica io of deficie cy, be i of colour (m.
III), wi s (m. II), i eres (m. I), sharp ess (m. V), e c. he implica io of i sufficie quali y, of some hi g lacki g, ca be clearly dis i guished i each separa e mea i g.Dull, adj.1. U i eres i g - deficie i i eres or exci eme . 2. . S upid - deficie i i ellec . 3. o brigh - deficie i ligh or colour. 4. o loud - deficie i sou d. 5. o sharp - deficie i sharp ess. 6. o ac ive - deficie i ac ivi y. 7. Seei g badly - deficie i eyesigh . 8. Heari g badly - deficie i heari g. he ra sformed scheme of he sema ic s ruc ure of “dull” clearly shows ha he ce re holdi g oge her he complex sema ic s ruc ure of his word is o o e of he mea i gs bu a cer ai compo e ha ca be easily si gled ou wi hi each separa e mea i g.O he seco d level of a alysis of he sema ic s ruc ure of a word: each separa e mea i g is a subjec o s ruc ural a alysis i which i may be represe ed as se s of sema ic compo e s. he scheme of he sema ic s ruc ure of “dull” shows ha he sema ic s ruc ure of a word is o a mere sys em of mea i gs, for each separa e mea i g is subjec o fur her subdivisio a d possesses a i er s ruc ure of i s ow . herefore, he sema ic s ruc ure of a word should be i ves iga ed a bo h hese levels: 1) of differe mea i gs, 2) of sema ic compo e s wi hi each separa e mea i g. For a mo osema ic word (i. e. a word wi h o e mea i g) he firs level is a urally excluded. ypes of Sema ic Compo e s he leadi g sema ic compo e i he sema ic s ruc ure of a word is usually ermed de o a ive compo e (also, he erm refere ial compo e may be used). he de o a ive compo e expresses he co cep ual co e of a word. he followi g lis prese s de o a ive compo e s of some E glish adjec ives a d verbs: De o a ive compo e slo ely, adj. - alo e, wi hou compa y o orious, adj. - widely k ow celebra ed, adj. - widely k ow o glare, v. - o look o gla ce, v. - o look o shiver, v. - o remble o shudder, v. - o rembleI is qui e obvious ha he defi i io s give i he righ colum o ly par ially a d i comple ely describe he mea i gs of heir correspo di g words. hey do o give a more or less full pic ure of he mea i g of a word. o do i , i is ecessary o i clude i he scheme of a alysis addi io al sema ic compo e s which are ermed co o a io s or co o a ive compo e s. De o a ive Co o a ive compo e s compo e s he above examples show how by si gli g ou de o a ive a d co o a ive compo e s o e ca ge a sufficie ly clear pic ure of wha he word really mea s. he schemes prese i g he sema ic s ruc ures of “glare”, “shiver”, “shudder” also show ha a mea i g ca have wo or more co o a ive compo e s. he give examples do o exhaus all he ypes of co o a io s bu prese o ly a few: emo ive, evalua ive co o a io s, a d also co o a io s of dura io a d of cause.Mea i g a d Co ex I ’s impor a ha here is some imes a cha ce of misu ders a di g whe a polysema ic word is used i a cer ai mea i g bu accep ed by a lis e er or reader i a o her.I is commo k owledge ha co ex preve s from a y misu ders a di g of mea i gs. For i s a ce, he adjec ive “dull”, if used ou of co ex , would mea differe hi gs o differe people or o hi g a all.
Однако это совсем не так: скандхи никоим образом не есть субстанции, они именно группы элементов, причем выделяемые достаточно условно и формально реальны (и то по учению большинства буддийских школ только относительно) именно элементы, а не их группы скандхи. И здесь мы подходим к одной из самых сложных и центральных тем буддийской философии учению о дхармах, то есть к Абхидхарме (буддийской философской психологии; точнее, это и не философия, и не психология, а именно Абхидхарма, но для нас понятнее всего будет, если мы объясним это слово через знакомое нам сочетание слов «философская психология»). Теория дхарм настолько важна для буддизма, что один из своих главных трудов (книга впервые была опубликована в Англии) выдающийся российский буддолог академик Ф.PИ.PЩербатской так и назвал: «The Central Conception of Buddhism and the Meaning of the Word Dharma» («Центральная концепция буддизма и значение слова дхарма»). К учению о дхармах элементах, образующих группы (скандхи), в свою очередь, формирующих то, что мы называем личностью, теперь и следует обратиться[6]
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