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Lexicology. Word structure in Modern English |
Ночник-проектор "Звездное небо, планеты", черный. 
Забавная пачка "5000 дублей". WORD S RUC URE I MODER E GLISH he morphological s ruc ure of a word. Morphemes. ypes of morphemes. Allomorphs. S ruc ural ypes of words. Pri ciples of morphemic a alysis. Deriva io al level of a alysis. S ems. ypes of s ems. Deriva io al ypes of words. he morphological s ruc ure of a word. Morphemes. ypes of Morphemes. Allomorphs. here are wo levels of approach o he s udy of word- s ruc ure: he level of morphemic a alysis a d he level of deriva io al or word-forma io a alysis. Word is he pri cipal a d basic u i of he la guage sys em, he larges o he morphologic a d he smalles o he sy ac ic pla e of li guis ic a alysis. I has bee u iversally ack owledged ha a grea ma y words have a composi e a ure a d are made up of morphemes, he basic u i s o he morphemic level, which are defi ed as he smalles i divisible wo-face la guage u i s. he erm morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ” -eme. he Greek suffix –eme has bee adop ed by li guis ic o de o e he smalles u i or he mi imum dis i c ive fea ure. he morpheme is he smalles mea i gful u i of form. A form i hese cases a recurri g discre e u i of speech. Morphemes occur i speech o ly as co s i ue par s of words, o i depe de ly, al hough a word may co sis of si gle morpheme. Eve a cursory exami a io of he morphemic s ruc ure of E glish words reveals ha hey are composed of morphemes of differe ypes: roo -morphemes a d affixa io al morphemes. Words ha co sis of a roo a d a affix are called derived words or deriva ives a d are produced by he process of word buildi g k ow as affixa io (or deriva io ). he roo -morpheme is he lexical ucleus of he word; i has a very ge eral a d abs rac lexical mea i g commo o a se of sema ically rela ed words co s i u i g o e word-clus er, e.g. ( o) each, eacher, eachi g. Besides he lexical mea i g roo -morphemes possess all o her ypes of mea i g proper o morphemes excep he par -of-speech mea i g which is o fou d i roo s. Affixa io al morphemes i clude i flec io al affixes or i flec io s a d deriva io al affixes. I flec io s carry o ly gramma ical mea i g a d are hus releva o ly for he forma io of word-forms. Deriva io al affixes are releva for buildi g various ypes of words. hey are lexically always depe de o he roo which hey modify. hey possess he same ypes of mea i g as fou d i roo s, bu u like roo -morphemes mos of hem have he par -of-speech mea i g which makes hem s ruc urally he impor a par of he word as hey co di io he lexico-gramma ical class he word belo gs o. Due o his compo e of heir mea i g he deriva io al affixes are classified i o affixes buildi g differe par s of speech: ou s, verbs, adjec ives or adverbs. Roo s a d deriva io al affixes are ge erally easily dis i guished a d he differe ce be wee hem is clearly fel as, e.g., i he words helpless, ha dy, black ess, Lo do er, refill, e c.: he roo -morphemes help-, ha d-, black-, Lo do -, fill-, are u ders ood as he lexical ce ers of he words, a d –less, -y, - ess, -er, re- are fel as morphemes depe de o hese roo s. Dis i c io is also made of free a d bou d morphemes. Free morphemes coi cide wi h word-forms of i depe de ly fu c io i g words.
I is obvious ha free morphemes ca be fou d o ly amo g roo s, so he morpheme boy- i he word boy is a free morpheme; i he word u desirable here is o ly o e free morpheme desire-; he word pe -holder has wo free morphemes pe - a d hold-. I follows ha bou d morphemes are hose ha do o coi cide wi h separa e word- forms, co seque ly all deriva io al morphemes, such as – ess, -able, -er are bou d. Roo -morphemes may be bo h free a d bou d. he morphemes heor- i he words heory, heore ical, or horr- i he words horror, horrible, horrify; A gl- i A glo-Saxo ; Afr- i Afro-Asia are all bou d roo s as here are o ide ical word-forms. I should also be o ed ha morphemes may have differe pho emic shapes. I he word-clus er please, pleasi g, pleasure, pleasa he pho emic shapes of he word s a d i compleme ary dis ribu io or i al er a io wi h each o her. All he represe a io s of he give morpheme, ha ma ifes al er a io are called allomorphs/or morphemic varia s/ of ha morpheme. he combi i g form allo- from Greek allos “o her” is used i li guis ic ermi ology o de o e eleme s of a group whose members oge her co sis u e a s ruc ural u i of he la guage (allopho es, allomorphs). hus, for example, -io / - io / -sio / -a io are he posi io al varia s of he same suffix, hey do o differ i mea i g or fu c io bu show a sligh differe ce i sou d form depe di g o he fi al pho eme of he precedi g s em. hey are co sidered as varia s of o e a d he same morpheme a d called i s allomorphs. Allomorph is defi ed as a posi io al varia of a morpheme occurri g i a specific e viro me a d so charac erized by compleme ary descrip io . Compleme ary dis ribu io is said o ake place, whe wo li guis ic varia s ca o appear i he same e viro me . Differe morphemes are charac erized by co ras ive dis ribu io , i.e. if hey occur i he same e viro me hey sig al differe mea i gs. he suffixes –able a d –ed, for i s a ce, are differe morphemes, o allomorphs, because adjec ives i –able mea “ capable of bei gs”. Allomorphs will also occur amo g prefixes. heir form he depe ds o he i i ials of he s em wi h which hey will assimila e. wo or more sou d forms of a s em exis i g u der co di io s of compleme ary dis ribu io may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for i s a ce, i lo g a: le g h . S ruc ural ypes of words. he morphological a alysis of word- s ruc ure o he morphemic level aims a spli i g he word i o i s co s i ue morphemes – he basic u i s a his level of a alysis – a d a de ermi i g heir umber a d ypes. he four ypes (roo words, derived words, compou d, shor e i gs) represe he mai s ruc ural ypes of Moder E glish words, a d co versio , deriva io a d composi io he mos produc ive ways of word buildi g. Accordi g o he umber of morphemes words ca be classified i o mo omorphic a d polymorphic. Mo omorphic or roo -words co sis of o ly o e roo -morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, e c. All polymorphic word fall i o wo subgroups: derived words a d compou d words – accordi g o he umber of roo -morphemes hey have. Derived words are composed of o e roo -morpheme a d o e or more deriva io al morphemes, e.g
. accep able, ou do, disagreeable, e c. Compou d words are hose which co ai a leas wo roo -morphemes, he umber of deriva io al morphemes bei g i sig ifica . here ca be bo h roo - a d deriva io al morphemes i compou ds as i pe -holder, ligh -mi ded ess, or o ly roo -morphemes as i lamp-shade, eye-ball, e c. hese s ruc ural ypes are o of equal impor a ce. he clue o he correc u ders a di g of heir compara ive value lies i a careful co sidera io of: 1) he impor a ce of each ype i he exis i g words ock, a d 2) heir freque cy value i ac ual speech. Freque cy is by far he mos impor a fac or. Accordi g o he available word cou s made i differe par s of speech, we fi d ha derived words umerically co s i u e he larges class of words i he exis i g words ock; derived ou s comprise approxima ely 67% of he o al umber, adjec ives abou 86%, whereas compou d ou s make abou 15% a d adjec ives abou 4%. Roo words come o 18% i ou s, i.e. a rifle more ha he umber of compou d words; adjec ives roo words come o approxima ely 12%. Bu we ca o fail o perceive ha roo -words occupy a predomi a place. I E glish, accordi g o he rece freque cy cou s, abou 60% of he o al umber of ou s a d 62% of he o al umber of adjec ives i curre use are roo -words. Of he o al umber of adjec ives a d ou s, derived words comprise abou 38% a d 37% respec ively while compou d words comprise a i sig ifica 2% i ou s a d 0.2% i adjec ives. hus i is he roo -words ha co s i u e he fou da io a d he backbo e of he vocabulary a d ha are of paramou impor a ce i speech. I should also be me io ed ha roo words are charac erized by a high degree of collocabili y a d a complex varie y of mea i gs i co ras wi h words of o her s ruc ural ypes whose sema ic s ruc ures are much poorer. Roo - words also serve as pare forms for all ypes of derived a d compou d words. Pri ciples of morphemic a alysis. I mos cases he morphemic s ruc ure of words is ra spare e ough a d i dividual morphemes clearly s a d ou wi hi he word. he segme a io of words is ge erally carried ou accordi g o he me hod of Immedia e a d Ul ima e Co s i ue s. his me hod is based o he bi ary pri ciple, i.e. each s age of he procedure i volves wo compo e s he word immedia ely breaks i o. A each s age hese wo compo e s are referred o as he Immedia e Co s i ue s. Each Immedia e Co s i ue a he ex s age of a alysis is i ur broke i o smaller mea i gful eleme s. he a alysis is comple ed whe we arrive a co s i ue s i capable of fur her divisio , i.e. morphemes. hese are referred o Ul ima e Co s i ue s. A sy chro ic morphological a alysis is mos effec ively accomplished by he procedure k ow as he a alysis i o Immedia e Co s i ue s. ICs are he wo mea i gful par s formi g a large li guis ic u i y. he me hod is based o he fac ha a word charac erized by morphological divisibili y is i volved i cer ai s ruc ural correla io s. o sum up: as we break he word we ob ai a a y level o ly ICs o e of which is he s em of he give word. All he ime he a alysis is based o he pa er s charac eris ic of he E glish vocabulary. As a pa er showi g he i erdepe de ce of all he co s i ue s segrega ed a various s ages, we ob ai he followi g formula: u { -ly} Breaki g a word i o i s Immedia e Co s i ue s we observe i each cu he s ruc ural order of he co s i ue s.
But the rate at which new fusions occur may be substantially reduced. In short, writing may be a counterforce that retards the emergence of more complex word structures. No one knows whether the three factors above are the whole truth about the inverse correlation between the complexity of society and of morphology. But at least there are plausible explanations that make the relation between the structure of words and the structure of a society less than a complete mystery. Unfortunately, the same cannot be said of another statistical correlation, which has recently been demonstrated in a different area of language. SOUND SYSTEM Languages vary considerably in the size of their sound inventories. Rotokas from Papua New Guinea has only six distinct consonants (p, t, k, b, d, g), Hawaiian has eight, but the!Xціцµ language from Botswana has forty-seven non-click consonants and seventy-eight different clicks that appear at the beginning of words. The number of vowels also varies considerably: many Australian languages have just three (u, a, i), Rotokas and Hawaiian have five each (a, e, i, o, u), whereas English has around twelve or thirteen vowels (depending on variety) and eight diphthongs
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