|
|
|
сделать стартовой | добавить в избранное |
 |
|
Modern English Word-Formation |
Коврик для запекания, силиконовый "Пекарь". 
Чашка "Неваляшка". 
Ручка "Шприц", желтая. C H A P E R I he ways i which ew words are formed, a d he fac ors which gover heir accep a ce i o he la guage, are ge erally ake very much for gra ed by he average speaker. o u ders a d a word, i is o ecessary o k ow how i is co s ruc ed, whe her i is simple or complex, ha is, whe her or o i ca be broke dow i o wo or more co s i ue s. We are able o use a word which is ew o us whe we fi d ou wha objec or o io i de o es. Some words, of course, are more ‘ ra spare ’ ha o hers. For example, i he words u fa homable a d i describable we recog ize he familiar pa er of ega ive prefix ra si ive word adjec ive-formi g suffix o which ma y words of similar form are co s ruc ed. K owi g he pa er , we ca easily guess heir mea i gs – ‘ca o be fa homed’ a d ‘ca o be described’ – al hough we are o surprised o fi d o her similar-looki g words, for i s a ce u fashio able a d u favourable for which his a alysis will o work. We recog ize as ‘ ra spare ’ he adjec ives u assumi g a d u heard-of, which aki g for gra ed he fac ha we ca o use assumi g a d heard-of. We accep as qui e a ural he fac ha al hough we ca use he verbs o pipe, o drum a d o rumpe , we ca o use he verbs o pia o a d o violi . Bu whe we mee ew coi ages, like ape-code, freak-ou , shu up- ess a d beau icia , we may o readily be able o explai our reac io s o hem. I ova io s i vocabulary are capable of arousi g qui e s ro g feeli gs i people who may o herwise o be i he habi of hi ki g very much abou la guage. Quirk1 quo es some le er o he press of a familiar ki d, wri e o pro es abou ‘horrible jargo ’, such as breakdow , ‘vile’ words like ra spor a io , a d he ‘a roci y’ lay-by. Ma y li guis s agree over he fac ha he subjec of word-forma io has o u il rece ly received very much a e io from descrip ive grammaria s of E glish, or from scholars worki g i he field of ge eral li guis ics. As a collec io of differe processes (compou di g, affixa io , co versio , backforma io , e c.) abou which, as a group, i is difficul o make ge eral s a eme s, word-forma io usually makes a brief appeara ce i o e or wo chap ers of a grammar. Valerie Adams emphasizes wo mai reaso s why he subjec has o bee a rac ive o li guis s: i s co ec io s wi h he o -li guis ic world of hi gs a d ideas, for which words provide he ames, a d i s equivocal posi io as be wee descrip ive a d his orical s udies. A few brief remarks, which ecessarily prese a much over-simplified pic ure, o he course which li guis ics has ake i he las hu dred years will make his easier. he i e ee h ce ury, he period of grea adva ces i his orical a d compara ive la guage s udy, saw he firs claims of li guis ics o be a scie ce, comparable i i s me hods wi h he a ural scie ces which were also e joyi g a period of exci i g discovery. hese claims res ed o he de ailed s udy, by compara ive li guis s, of formal correspo de ces i he I do-Europea la guages, a d heir realiza io ha such s udy depe ded o he assump io of cer ai a ural ‘laws’ of sou d cha ge.
As Robi s2 observes i his discussio of he li guis ics of he la er par of he i e ee h ce ury: he his ory of a la guage is raced hrough recorded varia io s i he forms a d mea i gs of i s words, a d la guages are proved o be rela ed by reaso of heir possessio of worlds beari g formal a d sema ic correspo de ces o each o her such as ca o be a ribu ed o mere cha ce or o rece borrowi g. If sou d cha ge were o regular, if word-forms were subjec o ra dom, i explicable, a d u mo iva ed varia io i he course of ime, such argume s would lose heir validi y a d li guis ic rela io s could o ly be es ablished his orically by ex rali guis ic evide ce such as is provided i he Roma ce field of la guages desce ded from La i . he rise a d developme i he we ie h ce ury of sy chro ic descrip ive li guis ics mea a shif of emphasis from his orical s udies, bu o from he idea of li guis ics as a scie ce based o de ailed observa io a d he rigorous exclusio of all expla a io s depe ded o ex rali guis ic fac ors. As early as 1876, He ry Swee had wri e :Before his ory mus come a k owledge of wha exis s. We mus lear o observe hi gs as hey are, wi hou regard o heir origi , jus as a zoologis mus lear o describe accura ely a horse or a y o her a imal. or would he mere s a eme s ha he moder horse is a desce da of a hree- oed marsh quadruped be accep ed as a exhaus ed descrip io . Such however is he course bei g pursued by mos a iquaria philologis s.3 he mos i flue ial scholar co cer ed wi h he ew li guis ics was Ferdi a d de Saussure, who emphasized he dis i c io be wee ex er al li guis ics – he s udy of he effec s o a la guage of he his ory a d cul ure of i s speakers, a d i er al li guis ics – he s udy of i s sys em a d rules. La guage, s udied sy chro ically, as a sys em of eleme s defi able i rela io o o e a o her, mus be see as a fixed s a e of affairs a a par icular poi of ime. I was i er al li guis ics, s imula ed by de Saussure’s works, ha was o be he mai co cer of he we ie h-ce ury scholars, a d wi hi i here could be o place for he s udy of he forma io of words, wi h i s close co ec io wi h he ex er al world a d i s implica io s of co s a cha ge. A y discussio of ew forma io s as such mea s he aba do me of he s ric dis i c io be wee his ory a d he prese mome . As Harris expressed i his i flue ial S ruc ural Li guis ics4: ‘ he me hods of descrip ive li guis ics ca o rea of he produc ivi y of eleme s si ce ha is a measure of he differe ce be wee our corpus a d some fu ure corpus of he la guage.’ Leo ard Bloomfield, whose book La guage5 was he ex work of major i flue ce af er ha of de Saussure, re-emphasized he ecessi y of a scie ific approach, a d he co seque difficul ies i he way of s udyi g ‘mea i g’, a d u il he middle of he i e ee -fif ies, i eres was ce ered o he isola i g of mi imal segme s of speech, he descrip io of heir dis ribu io rela ive o o e a o her, a d heir orga iza io i o larger u i s. he fu dame al u i of grammar was o he word bu a smaller u i , he morpheme. he ex major cha ge of emphasis i li guis ics was marked by he publica io i 1957 of oam Chomsky’s Sy ac ic S ruc ures6.
As Chomsky s a ed i , he aim of li guis ics was ow see o be ‘ o make gramma ical expla a io s parallel i achieveme o he behavior of he speaker who, o he basis of a fi i e a d accide al experie ce wi h la guage ca produce a d u ders a d a i defi i e umber of ew se e ces’7. he idea of produc ivi y, or crea ivi y, previously excluded from li guis ics, or discussed i erms of probabili ies i he effor o mai ai he view of la guage as exis i g i a s a ic s a e, was see o be of ce ral impor a ce. Bu s ill word-forma io remai ed a opic eglec ed by li guis s, a d for several good reaso s. Chomsky made explici he dis i c io , fu dame al o li guis ics oday (a d comparable o ha made by de Saussure be wee la gue, he sys em of a la guage, a d parole, he se of u era ces of he la guage), be wee li guis ic compe e ce, ‘ he speaker-hearer’s k owledge of his la guage’ a d performa ce, ‘ he ac ual use of la guage i co cre e si ua io s’8. Li ked wi h his dis i c io are he o io s of ‘gramma ical ess’ a d ‘accep abili y’; i Chomsky’s words, ‘Accep abili y is a co cep ha belo gs o he s udy of compe e ce’9. A ‘gramma ical’ u era ce is o e which may be ge era ed a d i erpre ed by he rules of he grammar; a ‘accep able’ u era ce is o e which is ‘perfec ly a ural a d immedia ely comprehe sible. a d i o way bizarre or ou la dish’10. I is easy o show, as Chomsky does, ha a gramma ical se e ce may o be accep able. For i s a ce, his is he cheese he ra he ca caugh s ole appears ‘bizarre’ a d u accep able because we have difficul y i worki g i ou , o because i breaks a y gramma ical rules. Ge erally, however, i is o be expec ed ha gramma ical ess a d accep abili y will go ha d i ha d where se e ces are co cer ed. he abili y o make a d u ders a d ew words is obviously as much a par of our li guis ic compe e ce as he abili y o make a d u ders a d ew se e ces, a d so, as Pe a e 11 poi s ou , ‘i is a obvious gap i ra sforma io al grammars o o have made provisio for rea i g word-forma io .’ Bu , as we have already o iced, we may readily hi g of words, like o pia o a d o violi , agai s which we ca i voke o rule, bu which are defi i ely ‘u accep able’ for o obvious reaso . he i co grue ce of gramma icali y a d accep abili y ha is, is far grea er where words are co cer ed ha where se e ces are co cer ed. I is so grea , i fac , ha he exercise of se i g ou he ‘rules’ for formi g words has so far seemed o ma y li guis s o be ou of ques io able useful ess. he occasio s o which we would have o describe he ou pu of such rules as ‘gramma ical bu o -occurri g’12 are jus oo umerous. A d here are fur her difficul ies i rea i g ew words like ew se e ces. A ovel word (like ha dbook or par ial) may a rac u welcome a e io o i self a d appear o be he resul of he breaki g of rules ra her ha of heir applica io . A d besides, he more accus omed o he word we become, he more likely we are o fi d i accep able, whe her i is ‘gramma ical’ or o – or perhaps we should say, whe her or o is was ‘gramma ical’ a he ime i was firs formed, si ce a ew word o ce formed, of e becomes merely a member of a i ve ory; i s forma io is a his orical eve , a d he ‘rule’ behi d i may he appear irreleva .
She took the hint and the next night we were on the bed together. She was very plain faced, nor was her form remarkable, and her cunt was a coarse, hairy pouter, yet it seemed a delicious one as I fucked it. She'd only a gown on over her chemise which I took off, and clothing did not embarrass us, for I stripped, flicked her twice, and gamahuched her once in about an hour and a half, during which the mosquitoes feasted on my rump and thighs, and on her thighs and breasts. We separated content with each other. The next night we did the same and showed each other mosquito evidences. The day after, she with her parents departed in a different direction from ours. I never have seen her since. She didn't fear her parents much, for she said that she paid all the costs of their journey. She was a well-to-do widow. Then I found out the locality of the whores. My friends had already done so, and we walked in the day-time there together. Evening found me there alone. Many an Englishman had been in the house, and the women had learnt a few English words explanatory of copulation — “Me fuckee prick,” said one — I saw two dance naked their national dances
1. The Borrowed Words Process Development in English
2. Holidays and traditions in english-speaking countries
3. Русские заимствования в английском языке (Russian borrowings in English language)
4. Holidays and traditions in english-speaking countries
5. History of `The Beatles` and biographies of members in english
9. Formation of group behaviour in the organisations
10. Lexicology. Word structure in Modern English
11. Water World as Another Home for English Nation Reflected in the English Folklore
12. Polysemy In The Semantic Field Of Movement In The English Language
13. Double modals as single lexical items in American English
14. Formation and development of political parties in the Republic of Belarus
15. French Borrowings in the Modern English Language
16. Multiple Intelligences in the structure of a new English syllabus for secondary school
Щётка-сметка автомобильная для снега, телескопическая, поворотная, со скребком, 810-1060 мм. 
Рюкзак школьный "Multi Pack. Graphic", 40x18x29,5 см. 
Именная кружка с надписью "Любимый папа". 17. Tragic heroes in modern English literature
18. Подготовка к TOEFL - Test of English as a Foreign Language
19. English Course Work on Newspaper Reading
20. English topics
21. Конституция в киберпространстве: закон и свобода за электронной границей (english/russian)
25. The Influence of English Mass Culture on Estonia
26. Interactive method of teaching English grammar
30. Отчет по практической работе "Изучение MS Windows & MS Word 4 Windows 2.0"
31. Ввод и редактирование данных в Word
32. Проверка правописания в Word
Противомоскитная сетка, 100х220 см, бежевая. 
Фломастеры утолщенные "Jumbo", 24 цвета. 
Музыкальная шкатулка в форме трапеции. 34. ПОСТРОЕНИЕ ДИАГРАММ СРЕДСТВАМИ WORD И EXCEL
35. Контрольная работа по Word
36. Офисные программы (текстовый редактор WORD)
42. Исследование возможности извлечения редких металлов из золы-уноса ТЭЦ (MS Word 97)
43. Формы собственности и формы предпринимательской деятельности в условиях рынка (Word`97)
45. Политическая география европейских меньшинств english
46. Customs and traditions of English speaking countries
47. English idioms
48. THE Growing Influence of English Mass Culture
Игра-баланс "Ежик". 
"English". Электронный звуковой плакат "Английская Азбука", артикул PL-01-EN. 
Рюкзачок "Путешествие". 51. English writer: William Shakespeare
53. Неблагоприятные Эффекты Зеленых Лужаек english
59. English as an Indo-European Language
60. Конфликт между Палестинскими Арабами и Евреями english
61. William Shakespeare english
62. Смерть Мадам Тюссо english
64. Теория социокультурных систем как основа для потенциального анализа конфликтов english
Карандаши цветные, 24 цвета. 
Подгузники "Солнце и Луна. Нежное прикосновение", размер: 3/M (4-9 кг), 60 штук. 
Брелок "FIFA 2018. Забивака. Фристайл!". 65. Socio-cultural foundations of east-european&Russian geopolitics english
67. 2 Топика по иностранному языку english
68. Топик по иностранному языку english
69. 2 Топика по иностранному языку english
73. 6 вопросов по иностранному языку для 11 класса english
74. 4 Топика по иностранному языку english
75. 2 топика по английскому языку english
76. Топик по иностранному языку /english/
77. 2 топика по иностранному языку /english/
78. 4 топика по иностранному языку /english/
79. 9 сочинений для 9 класса /english/
80. 9 сочинений для 9 класса /english/
Доска пеленальная "Гном". 
Набор "Водный Мир" №3. 
Пеленки одноразовые впитывающие TerezaMed "Normal" (60х90 см, 30 штук). 81. Международная политика english
83. Музеи и галереи искусств /english/
84. Хобби /english/
89. Спорт в моей жизни /english/
90. США /english/
91. Москва /english/
92. Проблемы молодости /english/
93. All English proverbs and sayings
94. English Language
95. English Painting and Art Galleries
Чехол стеганый сменный "Нордтекс" (для подушки 70х70 см), на молнии. 
Светильник настольный Лючия "Верона", 552, 60 Вт, Е14 (бежево-серый). 
Рюкзачок "Олень". 97. Historical Background of the Middle English Period
98. Polari - English gay slang
99. The system of english tenses
