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The Comparative Analysis Of The History Of The Computer Science And The Computer Engineering In The USA And Ukraine |
Мыло металлическое "Ликвидатор". 
Фонарь желаний бумажный, оранжевый. 
Ночник-проектор "Звездное небо, планеты", черный. HOWARD H. AIKE A D HE COMPU ER Howard Aike 's co ribu io s o he developme of he compu er - o ably he Harvard Mark I (IBM ASSC) machi e, a d i s successor he Mark II - are of e excluded from he mai s ream his ory of compu ers o wo ech icali ies. he firs is ha Mark I a d Mark II were elec ro-mecha ical ra her ha elec ro ic; he seco d o e is ha Aike was ever co vi ced ha compu er programs should be rea ed as da a i wha has come o be k ow as he vo euma co cep , or he s ored program.I is o proposed o discuss here he origi s a d sig ifica ce of he s ored program. or I wish o deal wi h he rela ed problem of whe her he machi es before he s ored program were or were o “compu ers”. his subjec is complica ed by he co fusio i ac ual ames give o machi es. For example, he E IAC, which did o i corpora e a s ored program, was officially amed a compu er: Elec ro ic umeral I egra or A d Compu er. Bu he firs s ored-program machi e o be pu i o regular opera io was Maurice Wiles' EDSAC: Elec ro ic Delay S orage Au oma ic Calcula or. I seems o be ra her se seless o de y ma y ruly sig ifica i ova io s (by H.H.Aike a d by Ecker a d Mauchly), which played a impor a role i he his ory of compu ers, o he arbi rary grou d ha hey did o i corpora e he s ored-program co cep . Addi io ally, i he case of Aike , i is sig ifica ha here is a curre compu er ech ology ha does o i corpora e he s ored programs a d ha is desig a ed as (a leas by EXAS I S RUME S) as “Harvard archi ec ure”, hough, i should more properly be called “Aike archi ec ure”. I his ech ology he program is fix a d o subjec o a y al era io save by i e - as i some compu ers used for elepho e swi chi g a d i ROM. OPERA IO OF HE E IAC.Aike was a visio ary, a ma ahead of his imes. Grace Hopper a d o hers remember his predic io i he la e 1940s, eve before he vacuum ube had bee wholly replaced by he ra sis or, ha he ime would come whe a machi e eve more powerful ha he gia machi es of hose days could be fi ed i o a space as small as a shoe box.Some weeks before his dea h Aike had made a o her predic io . He poi ed ou ha hardware co sidera io s alo e did o give a rue pic ure of compu er cos s. As hardware has become cheaper, sof ware has bee ap o ge more expe sive. A d he he gave us his fi al predic io : “ he ime will come”, he said, “whe ma ufac urers will gave away hardware i order o sell sof ware”. ime alo e will ell whe her or o his was his fi al look ahead i o he fu ure. DEVELOPME OF COMPU ERS I HE USA I he early 1960s, whe compu ers were hulki g mai frames ha ook up e ire rooms, e gi eers were already oyi g wi h he he - ex ravaga o io of buildi g a compu er i e ded for he sole use of o e perso . by he early 1970s, researches a Xerox's Polo Al o Research Ce er (Xerox PARC) had realized ha he pace of improveme i he ech ology of semico duc ors - he chips of silico ha are he buildi g blocks of prese -day elec ro ics - mea ha soo er or la er he PC would be ex ravaga o lo ger. hey foresaw ha compu i g power would someday be so cheap ha e gi eers would be able o afford o devo e a grea deal of i simply o maki g o - ech ical people more comfor able wi h hese ew i forma io - ha dli g ools.
i heir labs, hey developed or refi ed much of wha co s i u es PCs oday, from “mouse” poi i g devices o sof ware “wi dows”.Al hough he work a Xerox PARC was crucial, i was o he spark ha ook PCs ou of he ha ds of exper s a d i o he popular imagi a io . ha happe ed i auspiciously i Ja uary 1975, whe he magazi e Popular Elec ro ics pu a ew ki for hobbyis s, called he Al air, o i s cover. for he firs ime, a ybody wi h $400 a d a solderi g iro could buy a d assemble his ow compu er. he Al air i spired S eve Wos iak a d S eve Jobs o build he firs Apple compu er, a d a you g college dropou amed Bill Ga es o wri e sof ware for i . Mea while. he perso who deserves he credi for i ve i g he Al air, a e gi eer amed Ed Rober s, lef he i dus ry he had spaw ed o go o medical school. ow he is a doc or i small ow i ce ral Georgia. o his day, researchers a Xerox a d elsewhere pooh-pooh he Al air as oo primi ive o have made use of he ech ology hey fel was eeded o bri g PCs o he masses. I a se se, hey are righ . he Al air i corpora ed o e of he firs si gle-chip microprocessor - a semico duc or chip, ha co ai ed all he basic circui s eeded o do calcula io s - called he I el 8080. Al hough he 8080 was adva ced for i s ime, i was far oo slow o suppor he mouse, wi dows, a d elabora e sof ware Xerox had developed. I deed, i was ' u il 1984, whe Apple Compu er's Maci osh burs o o he sce e, ha PCs were powerful e ough o fulfill he origi al visio of researchers. “ he ki d of compu i g ha people are ryi g o do oday is jus wha we made a PARC i he early 1970s,” says Ala Kay, a former Xerox researcher who jumped o Apple i he early 1980s. MACI OSH PERFORMA 6200/6300Researchers oday are proceedi g i he same spiri ha mo iva ed Kay a d his Xerox PARC colleagues i he 1970s: o make i forma io more accessible o ordi ary people. Bu a look i o oday's research labs reveals very li le ha resembles wha we hi k of ow as a PC. For o e hi g, researchers seem eager o aba do he keyboard a d mo i or ha are he PC's rademarks. I s ead hey are ryi g o devise PCs wi h i erpre ive powers ha are more huma like - PCs ha ca hear you a d see you, ca ell whe you're i a bad mood a d k ow o ask ques io s whe hey do ' u ders a d some hi g.I is impossible o predic he i ve io ha , like he Al air, crys allize ew approaches i a way ha cap ures people's imagi a io . op 20 compu er sys ems From solderi g iro s o SparcS a io s, from MI S o Maci osh, perso al compu ers have evolved from do-i -yourself ki s for elec ro ic hobbyis s i o machi es ha prac ically leap ou of he box a d se hemselves up. Wha e abled hem o ge from here o here? I ova io a d de ermi a io . Here are op 20 sys ems ha made ha rapid evolu io possible.MI S Al air 8800 here o ce was a ime whe you could buy a op-of- he-li e compu er for $395. he o ly ca ch was ha you had o build i yourself. Al hough he Al air 8800 was ' ac ually he firs perso al compu er (Scelbi Compu er Co sul i g`s 8008-based Scelbi-8H ki probably ook ha ho or i 1973), i grabbed a e io . MI S sold 2000 of hem i 1975 - more ha a y si gle compu er before i .
Based o I el`s 8-bi 8080 processor, he Al air 8800 ki i cluded 256 by es of memory (upgradable, of course) a d a oggle-swi ch-a d-LED fro pa el. For ame i ies such as keyboard, video ermi als, a d s orage devices, you had o go o o e of he compa ies ha spra g up o suppor he Al air wi h expa sio cards. I 1975, MI S offered 4- a d 8-KB Al air versio s of BASIC, he firs produc developed by Bill Ga es` a d Paul Alle `s ew compa y, Microsof .If he perso al compu er hobbyis s moveme was simmeri g, 1975 saw i come o a boil wi h he i roduc io of he Al air 8800.Apple II hose of you who hi k of he IBM PC as he qui esse ial busi ess compu ers may be i for a surprise: he Apple II ( oge her wi h VisiCalc) was wha really made people o look a perso al compu ers as busi ess ools, o jus oys. he Apple II debu ed a he firs Wes Coas Compu er Fair i Sa Fra cisco i 1977. Wi h buil -i keyboard, graphics display, eigh readily accessible expa sio slo s, a d BASIC buil -i o ROM, he Apple II was ac ually easy o use. Some of i s i ova io s, like buil -i high-resolu io color graphics a d a high-level la guage wi h graphics comma ds, are s ill ex raordi ary fea ures i desk op machi es.Wi h a 6502 CPU, 16 KB of RAM, a 16-KB ROM, a casse e i erface ha ever really worked well (mos Apple I e ded up wi h he floppy drive he was a ou ced i 1978), a d color graphics, he Apple II sold for $1298.Commo dore PE Also i roduced a he firs Wes Coas Compu er Fair, Commo dore`s PE (Perso al Elec ro ic ra sac or) s ar ed a lo g li e of expe sive perso al compu ers ha brough compu ers o he masses. ( he VIC-20 ha followed was he firs compu er o sell 1 millio u i s, a d he Commo dore 64 af er ha was he firs o offer a whoppi g 64 KB of memory.) he keyboard a d small mo ochrome display bo h fi i he same o e-piece u i . Like he Apple II, he PE ra o MOS ech ology's 6502. I s $795 price, key o he Pe 's populari y supplied o ly 4 KB of RAM bu i cluded a buil -i casse e ape drive for da a s orage a d 8-KB versio of Microsof BASIC i i s 14-KB ROM.Radio Shack RS-80Remember he rash 80? Sold a local Radio Shack s ores i your choice of color (Mercedes Silver), he RS-80 was he firs ready- o-go compu er o use Zilog`s Z80 processor. he base u i was esse ially a hick keyboard wi h 4 KB of RAM a d 4 KB of ROM (which i cluded BASIC). A op io al expa sio box ha co ec ed by ribbo cable allowed for memory expa sio . A Pi k Pearl eraser was s a dard equipme o keep hose ribbo cable co ec io s clea .Much of he firs sof ware for his sys em was dis ribu ed o audiocasse es played i from Radio Shack casse e recorders.Osbor e 1 Por ableBy he e d of he 1970s, garage s ar -ups were pass. For u a ely here were o her e repre eurial possibili ies. ake Adam Osbor e, for example. He sold Osbor e Books o McGraw-Hill a d s ar ed Osbor e Compu er. I s firs produc , he 24-pou d Osbor e 1 Por able, boas ed a low price of $1795.More impor a , Osbor e es ablished he prac ice of bu dli g sof ware - i spades. he Osbor e 1 came wi h early $1500 wor h of programs: WordS ar, SuperCalc, BASIC, a d a slew of CP/M u ili ies.B
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