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How "DNA" testing works Анализ "ДНК" как проверяющие работы) |
17:22 17.10.10 7 HOW “D A” ES I G WORKS he ools for solvi g rapes a d murders have improved rapidly. Five years ago D A es s could ’ li k suspec s o hair or seme fou d o a vic im. oday a crime lab ca ide ify u ique D A pa er s i a i y sample of jus 100 o 200 cells. he s eps scie is s ake o implica e or exo era e suspec s: Collec biological ma erials from he crime sce e a d he suspec u der i ves iga io , such as blood, hair, seme or saliva. Every cell is a u ique library of D A seque ces. he goal is o fi d ou if he fore sic a d suspec ’s samples ma ch. Isola e pure D A by mixi g he sample wi h chemicals ha break dow o her cellular ma erial. D A molecules co sis s of paired filame s ha i erlock like zippers, a d each filame is made up of chemicals “bases” (A, C, a d G) alig ed i u ique seque ces. Amplify he D A by separa i g paired filame s a d mixi g hem wi h shor fragme s k ow as primers. Whe a primer locks o o a par icular si e o a sample D A molecule, i riggers produc io of a lo ger fragme ha ma ches a piece of he sample. Segrega e he resul i g D A s ra ds. A sample mixed wi h 13 primers mul iplies i o millio s of dis i c ive molecules. Exposed o a elec rical curre , he molecules a sor ed i o color-coded ba ds o a gel. Compare he crimesce e samples wi h he suspec ’s. Scie is s say i ’s vir ually impossible for u rela ed people o ma ch up perfec ly o 13 differe levels. If samples do, odds ha hey’re from o e perso are overwhelmi g. Helped prove he i oce ce of A ho y Por er, who a o e poi had bee jus wo days shy of le hal i jec io for a pair of 1982 murders. O ce agai , he issue i Illi ois was ' he morali y of dea h se e ces, bu he da gerously sloppy way i which hey were ha ded ou . O ce agai a co fessio from a o her ma helped erase doub ha he ma co vic ed of he crime, who has a IQ of 51, had commi ed i . By las fall he lis of me freed from dea h row i Illi ois had grow o 11. ha 's whe he Chicago ribu e published a lavishly researched series explai i g why so ma y capi al cases were suspec . he ribu e’s diggi g fou d ha almos half of he 285 dea h-pe al y co vic io s i Illi ois i volved o e of four shaky compo e s: defe se a or eys who were la er suspe ded or disbarred, jailhouse s i ches eager o shor e heir ow se e ces, ques io able &quo ;hair a alysis&quo ; evide ce or black defe da s co vic ed by all-whi e juries. Wha 's more, i he weeks af er hose s ories appeared, wo more me were freed from dea h row. ha pushed he o al o 13 - o e more ha he umber of i ma es Illi ois had execu ed si ce rei s a i g he dea h pe al y i 1977. he Por er case a d he ribu e series were e ough for Gover or Rya . O Ja . 31, he declared a mora orium o Illi ois execu io s, a d appoi ed a commissio o see whe her he legal process for ha dli g capi al cases i Illi ois ca be fixed. U less he ge s a guara ee ha he sys em ca be made perfec , Rya old EWSWEEK las week, &quo ; here probably wo ' be a y more dea hs,&quo ; a leas while he's gover or. &quo ;I believe here are cases where he dea h pe al y is appropria e,&quo ; Rya said.
&quo ;Bu we've go o make sure we have he righ perso . Every gover or who holds his power has same fear I do.” Bu few are ac i g o i . I he wake of he Illi ois decisio , o ly ebraska, Maryla d, Orego a d rw Hampshire are reviewi g heir sys ems. he gover ors of he o her s a es ha allow he dea h pe al y appare ly hi k i works adequa ely. If hey wa o revisi he issue, hey migh co sider he followi g fac ors: Race: he role of race a d he dea h pe al y is of e misu ders ood. O o e level here's he charge of i s i u io al racism: 98 perce of prosecu ors are whi e, a d, accordi g o he AAGP, Legal Defe se Fu d hey are much more likely o ask for he dea h pe al y for a black-o -whi e crime ha whe blacks are he vic ims. Blacks co vic ed of major viole offe ses are more likely ha whi e co vic s o e d up o dea h row. Bu o ce hey ge here, blacks are less likely ha whi e dea h-row i ma es o he execu ed because au hori ies are o he defe sive abou seemi g o arge Africa -America s. he resul is bo h discrimi a io a d reverse discrimi a io - wi h deadly co seque ces. he risk of errors: he more people o dea h row, he grea er cha ce of mis akes. here are commo eleme s o cases where errible errors have bee made: whe police a d prosecu ors are pressured by he commu i y o &quo ;solve&quo ; a o orious murder; whe here's o D A evide ce or reliable eyewi esses; w e he crime is especially hei ous a d draws large amou s of pre rial publici y; whe defe se a or eys have limi ed resources, if au hori ies were par icularly vigila whe hese issues were a play, hey migh ide ify problema ic cases earlier. De erre ce: Of e he firs argume of dea h-pe al y suppor ers. Bu s udies of he subjec are all over he lo , wi h o evide ce ever es ablished of a de erre effec . Whe parole was more commo , die argume ear ed more logic. Bu owadays firs -degree murderers ca look forward o life wi hou parole if caugh , which should i heory de er diem as much as die deadi pe al y. I 's hard o imagi e a crimi als hi ki g: &quo ;Well, si ce Г migh ge he dea h pe al y for his crime, 1 wo ' do i . Bu if i was o ly life i priso , I'd go ahead.&quo ; i adequa e cou sel: Beyo d he i compe e lawyers who popula e a y cour -appoi ed sys em, Co gress a d he Cli o admi is ra io have pu he a io 's 3,600 dea h-row i ma es i a ago izi g Ca ch-22. Accordi g o he America Bar Associa io Dea h Pe al y Represe a io Projec , i a s a e like Califor ia, abou o e hird of dea h-row i ma es mus wai for years o be assig ed lawyers o ha dle heir s a e direc appeals. A d a he pos co vic io level i some sui es, i ma es do ' have access o lawyers a all. he ca ch isdia die 1996 A d - errorism a d Effec ive Dea ii Pe al y Ac has a s a u e of limi a io s requiri g dia i ma es file federal habeas corpus pe i io s (reques s for federal cour review) wi hi o e year af er die e d of heir direc s a e appeal. I o her words, because hey have o lawyer af er heir direc appeals, i ma es of e helplessly wa ch die clock ru ou o heir cha ce for federal review. his cu s dow o frivolous appeals—bu also o o es ha could reveal gross i jus ice.
Fac -fi di g: Mos s a es are ' as lucky as Illi ois. hey do ' have repor ers a d i ves iga ors diggi g i o die de ails of old cases. As die deadi pe al y becomes rou i e a d less ewswor hy, he odds agai s real i ves iga io grow eve worse. Аж1 eve whe fresh evide ce does surface, mos s a es place high barriers agai s i s use af er a rial. his has bee s a dard i he legal sys em for ge era io s, bu i makes li le se se whe a i ma e's life is a s ake. S a dards of guil : I mos jurisdic io s, die judge i s ruc s he jury o look for &quo ;guil beyo d a reaso able doub .&quo ; Bu is ha he righ s a dard for capi al cases? Maybe a seco d s aridard like &quo ;residual doub &quo ; would help, whereby if a y juror harbors a y doub wha soever, he co vic io would s a d bu he dea h pe al y would be ruled ou . he same double hreshold . migh apply o cases i volvi g si gle eyewi esses a d key es imo y by jailhouse s i ches wi h i ----- Cos : IJ less execu io s are drama ically speeded up (u likely af er so ma y mis akes), he dea h pe al y will remai far more expe sive ha life widiou parole. he differe ce is i he upfro prosecu io cos s, which are a leas four imes grea er dia i cases where dea h is o sough . Califor ia spe ds a ex ra $90 millio o i s capi al cases beyo d die ormal cos s of he sys em. Eve sub rac i g pro bo o defe se, he sys em is o bargai for axpayers. Whe her you're for or agai s die deadi pe al y, i 's hard o argue dia i does ' eed a fresh look. From America's earlies days, whe Be jami Fra kli helped develop he o io of degrees of culpabili y for murder, diis cou ry has bee willi g o reassess i s assump io s abou jus ice. If we're goi g o keep die deadi pe al y, die public seems o be sayi g, le 's be dam sure we're doi g i righ . D A es i g will help. So will odier fixes. Bu if, over ime, we ca ' do i righ , he we mus ask ourselves if i 's wor h doi g a all. HOW “D A” ES I G WORKS he ope i g D A is a ew era i developme of a scie ce a d socie y, i ope s ew oppor u i ies, which were i accessible earlier, a d is capable o help o o ly scie is a d pa ie , bu also policema wi h disclosi g a crime. ow already i is impossible o prese as five years ago ma aged wi hou a y help of D A. ow he labora ory ca ide ify samples fou d o a place of a crime, wi h samples suspec ed, a d he o make a co clusio abou par icipa io suspec ed wi h accuracy o 99 %. he a alysis D A co sis s of five s ages: 1)Collec 2)Isola e 3)Amplify 4)Segrega e 5)Compare , duri g which is fou d ou , whe her he fou d samples o a place of a crime suspec ed belo g. I is very heavy process, which requires large ma erial i pu s, a d huma forces. Bu resul ca ’ be valuable. As he ope i g D A has helped sharply o lower a judicial mis ake, which were o a rari y, a removal cour of a dea h pe al y. Very much of e execu ed he i oce people, which ha could o prove he i oce ce. ow, a use D A, he probabili y of a mis ake has decreased i 99 imes. Cer ai ly, use D A very much helps i ves iga io of crimes, bu o everyo e ca i allow. As here are a d ma y oppo e s, which ac agai s a oppor u i y of use of he a alysis D A.
The provision of lots of example source in the DDKs is great. Give us more! These show how real drivers work and show us how to use various kernel calls and techniques. The driver build environment is still essentially command line. Although it is easy enough to provide a Visual Studio wrapper for this build environment, a fully integrated system would be appreciated. The provision of a nice debugger that can be run on the same computer as the driver you are testing would be a boon. Developer Support You will have to make do with the DDK documentation and any colleagues that you can find to help out. First, scour the DDKs, the DDK source, documents in the DDK source, the Microsoft website, and the Platform SDK. Your next port of call might well be the newsgroups and mailing lists. Finally, you can pay Microsoft for help. Conclusion In this chapter, I have tried to give the device driver big picture, showing what components your driver will need and how it fits into the general scheme of things. There are different types of device driver and different ways of implementing the same driver functionality
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